Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire was one of the longest-lived and most powerful states of the early modern world. Founded about 1300 by the Turkmen chief Osman I in northwestern Anatolia, it expanded across southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, ruling from three successive capitals — Bursa, Edirne, and Constantinople (Istanbul) — after Mehmed II conquered the Byzantine capital in 1453. At its height under Selim I and Süleyman the Magnificent in the 16th century, it governed an immense multi-religious society through the sultan’s household, the devşirme-trained elite, and the millet system. After centuries of decline, incomplete reform, and defeat in World War I, the empire was partitioned; the Ottoman period came to an end in 1922, replaced by the Turkish Republic and successor states.