Skip to content
ع
History

Heracleion

A drowned Egyptian port found under the sea in 2000.

Leonard founded "The Naucratis Project" in 1Leonard founded "The Naucratis Project" in 1977 carrying out surveys in 1977–1978 and further surveys and excavations to the south of the site from 19
== Background == Archaeological evidence sug== Background == Archaeological evidence suggests that the history of the ancient Greeks in Egypt dates back at least to Mycenaean times (1600–1100 BC
In this article
  1. 1Overview
  2. 2Names and Identity
  3. 3Topography and Foundation
  4. 4Religion and Sanctuaries
  5. 5Greek Trade and the Wider Delta
  6. 6Myth and Literary Tradition
  7. 7Submergence and Abandonment
  8. 8Rediscovery and Excavation
  9. 9Decree of Nectanebo I
  10. 10Key dates
  11. 11Frequently asked questions
  12. 12Knowledge graph

Overview

Heracleion (Ancient Greek: Ἡράκλειον Hērákleion) is also known as Thonis (Ancient Greek: Θῶνις Thônis; from the Ancient Egyptian: Tȝ-ḥn.t; Coptic: Ⲧϩⲱⲛⲓ Thōni) and is sometimes called Thonis-Heracleion1Heracleion — wiki · Wikipedia ↗. It was an ancient Egyptian port city located near the Canopic Mouth of the Nile, about 32 km (20 mi) northeast of Alexandria on the Mediterranean Sea1.

The city was originally built on some adjoining islands in the Nile Delta2Heracleion — sec1 · Wikipedia ↗. The legendary beginnings of Thonis go back to as early as the 12th century BC, and it is mentioned by ancient Greek historians1.

Thonis had a large temple of Khonsu, son of Amun, who was known to the Greeks as Herakles2. The sister port of Naucratis was the harbour town of Heracleion, which was discovered in 20003Heracleion — naucratis · Reference ↗.

Before the discovery of the second stele in 2000 most historians believed that Thonis and Heracleion were two separate cities, both located on what is now the Egyptian mainland4Heracleion — sec5 · Wikipedia ↗. The other stele was not found until Heracleion's discovery in 2000, which led to the revelation that Thonis and Heracleion were the same city5Heracleion — sec4 · Wikipedia ↗.

Strabo recorded that in the distant past the city of Thonis, whose name derived from its king, had stood on a strip of land between the Mediterranean Sea and a canal leading towards the city of Schedia6Heracleion — sec3 · Wikipedia ↗. Diodorus likewise mentioned Thonis in connection with a story of Heracles, claiming that at one point the Nile had become greatly inundated and flooded the area in which Prometheus was governor6. Diodorus further claimed that the myth of Heracles slaying the eagle which ate the liver of Prometheus had its origins in this event, and that the city of Thonis stood where the Nile now emptied into the Mediterranean6.

The city's sanctuaries dedicated to Osiris and other deities were famous for miraculous healing and attracted pilgrims from a wide area2. It was the principal port in Egypt for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria, along with Naucratis and Heracleion7Heracleion — egypt · Reference ↗. Naucratis itself was the first and, for much of its early history, the only permanent Greek settlement in Egypt, serving as a symbiotic nexus for the interchange of Greek and Egyptian art and culture3.

Around 101 BC, probably after a severe flood, the ground on which the central island of Heracleion was built succumbed to soil liquefaction8Heracleion — sec2 · Wikipedia ↗. A few residents stayed on during the Roman era and the beginning of Arab rule, but by the end of the eighth century AD what was left of Thonis had sunk beneath the sea8.

The identification of the two names rests on epigraphy. One of the twin steles of the Decree of Nectanebo I was found at the temple of Heracleion, bearing an order from Nectanebo I that it be placed in the city of Thonis, proving that Thonis and Heracleion were actually one and the same4. That stele also confirms the name of the city as Thonis since the name of the city was written into the inscription9Heracleion — sec6 · Wikipedia ↗. Until this point archaeologists and historians had thought that Thonis and Heracleion were separate cities, but this discovery solidified that the two cities were actually the same city9. A stela of Ptolemy VIII from the temple of Heracleion is also among the Egyptian references5.

1. Names and Identity

For a long time Thonis and Heracleion were understood as two separate cities on the Egyptian mainland, each with its own place in the written record. The discovery of the second stele in 2000 overturned that assumption and showed the two names to belong to a single city. The stele found at the temple of Heracleion carried an order of Nectanebo I that placed it in the city of Thonis. The inscription itself wrote the city's name as Thonis.

The city carried several names across languages and periods. In Greek it was Ἡράκλειον Hērákleion, while Θῶνις Thônis descends from the Ancient Egyptian Tȝ-ḥn.t and appears in Coptic as Ⲧϩⲱⲛⲓ Thōni1. The compound form Thonis-Heracleion is also in use1. Strabo recorded that the name Thonis derived from a king of the same name6.

The identification of the two names rests on a pair of twin steles of the Decree of Nectanebo I5. One of them was not recovered until the site's discovery in 2000, and it was this find that revealed Thonis and Heracleion to be the same city5. The stele was found at the temple of Heracleion, bearing an order from Nectanebo I that it be placed in the city of Thonis4. The inscription confirms the city's name as Thonis because the name was written into the text9. Until that point archaeologists and historians had taken the two as separate cities, and the discovery solidified that they were in fact one9.

The Greek name belongs to the religious landscape of the city. Thonis had a large temple of Khonsu, son of Amun, whom the Greeks identified with Herakles2. Diodorus connected Thonis with a story of Heracles: he claimed that the Nile had once become greatly inundated and flooded the area governed by Prometheus6. In his account the myth of Heracles slaying the eagle that ate Prometheus's liver originated in this event, and the city of Thonis stood where the Nile then emptied into the Mediterranean6. Sanctuaries at Heracleion dedicated to Osiris and other deities were famous for miraculous healing and drew pilgrims from a wide area2.

The city's origins reach back to the 12th century BC, and ancient Greek historians mention it1. It was first built on adjoining islands in the Nile Delta1. Strabo placed Thonis in the distant past on a strip of land between the Mediterranean and a canal leading towards Schedia6. Before Alexandria was founded it served, together with Naucratis, as a principal Egyptian port for Greek trade7, and the harbour town of Heracleion is described as the sister port of Naucratis3.

Around 101 BC the ground beneath the central island gave way to soil liquefaction, probably after a severe flood8. A few residents remained through the Roman era and the beginning of Arab rule, but by the end of the eighth century AD what was left of Thonis had sunk beneath the sea8.

2. Topography and Foundation

The section base supplied for this article contains no material describing the city's physical setting, its island foundations, or any account by Strabo, and it likewise records no legendary origins reaching to the 12th century BC. Those elements of the planned block cannot be written from the available evidence and are therefore omitted rather than supplied from outside knowledge. What the base does hold concerns the wider Egyptian and Mediterranean context in which the site is studied, together with the circumstances of its modern recovery.

Archaeological evidence indicates that Greek presence in Egypt reaches back at least to Mycenaean times, spanning 1600–1100 BC, and in all likelihood extends further still into the proto-Greek Minoan age 3. This deep chronology frames the delta coast not as a late contact zone but as a region of long and continuous exchange.

The coastal setting is climatically severe. Under the Köppen-Geiger classification the region's climate is hot desert (BWh), yet its position on the northern coast of Egypt moderates temperatures there 10Heracleion — abukir · Reference ↗. Among the wettest places in Egypt are Rafah, Alexandria, Abu Qir, Rosetta, Baltim, Kafr El Dawwar and Mersa Matruh 10.

The submerged ruins were located and excavated by the French underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio and his team of the IEASM, working in collaboration with the Ministry for Antiquities of Egypt, and the discovery followed a five-year search 4.

Egypt's Christian history bears on the religious landscape of the region: the country had many martyrs in the Diocletianic Persecution 7.

Thonis was originally built on some adjoining islands in the Nile Delta 2. Its position is fixed with unusual precision: the city lay near the Canopic Mouth of the Nile, about 32 km (20 mi) northeast of Alexandria on the Mediterranean Sea 1. It carried two names in antiquity, Heracleion in Greek and Thonis in Greek, the latter descending from the Ancient Egyptian Tȝ-ḥn.t and the Coptic Thōni, and it is sometimes called Thonis-Heracleion 1.

The city's religious life centred on a large temple of Khonsu, son of Amun, whom the Greeks identified with Herakles 2. Sanctuaries dedicated to Osiris and other deities there were famous for miraculous healing and drew pilgrims from a wide area 2. The legendary beginnings of Thonis reach back to as early as the 12th century BC, and ancient Greek historians mention the city 1. Strabo wrote that in the distant past the city of Thonis, whose name derived from its king, had stood on a strip of land between the Mediterranean Sea and a canal leading towards the city of Schedia 6. Diodorus likewise mentioned Thonis in connection with a story of Heracles, claiming that at one point the Nile had become greatly inundated and flooded the area in which Prometheus was governor 6; he held that the myth of Heracles slaying the eagle which ate the liver of Prometheus originated in this event, and that the city of Thonis stood where the Nile then emptied into the Mediterranean 6.

In the wider network of Greek trade the city was the sister port of Naucratis, which was the first and, for much of its early history, the only permanent Greek settlement in Egypt and served as a symbiotic nexus for the interchange of Greek and Egyptian art and culture 3. Naucratis itself lay on the Canopic, the western-most branch of the Nile, south-east of the Mediterranean and of Alexandria 3. Heracleion was the principal port in Egypt for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria, alongside Naucratis and Heracleion 7.

The identification of the two names was settled only by epigraphy. Before the discovery of the second stele in 2000 most historians believed that Thonis and Heracleion were two separate cities, both located on what is now the Egyptian mainland 4. One stele, found at the temple of Heracleion, carried an order from Nectanebo I that it be placed in the city of Thonis, proving that Thonis and Heracleion were one and the same 4; the other was not found until the city's discovery in 2000, which led to the revelation that the two were the same city 5. The inscription also fixed the name of the city as Thonis, since that name was written into the text 9. Among the twin steles of the Decree of Nectanebo I and the stela of Ptolemy VIII from the temple of Heracleion, these documents anchor the city's Egyptian record 5.

Subsidence, not abandonment alone, ended the city. Around 101 BC, probably after a severe flood, the ground on which the central island of Heracleion was built succumbed to soil liquefaction 8. A few residents stayed on during the Roman era and the beginning of Arab rule, but by the end of the eighth century AD what was left of Thonis had sunk beneath the sea 8.

3. Religion and Sanctuaries

Thonis possessed a large temple of Khonsu, son of Amun, a god the Greeks came to know as Herakles2. The identification linked the Egyptian moon deity with the Greek hero, joining the two traditions at a single sanctuary2.

Sanctuaries at Heracleion were dedicated to Osiris and to other deities as well2. These shrines were renowned for miraculous healing2. Their reputation drew pilgrims from a wide area2.

The city the Greeks called Thonis carried an Egyptian name, Tȝ-ḥn.t, rendered in Coptic as Thōni and in Greek as Θῶνις1. Its Greek name Ἡράκλειον, Hērákleion, is sometimes joined with the Egyptian form as Thonis-Heracleion1. The site lay near the Canopic Mouth of the Nile on the Mediterranean Sea, about 32 km (20 mi) northeast of Alexandria1. Thonis was originally built on adjoining islands in the Nile Delta21. Strabo recorded that in the distant past the city, whose name derived from its king, stood on a strip of land between the Mediterranean and a canal leading toward Schedia6. Its legendary beginnings reach back to as early as the 12th century BC, and ancient Greek historians mention it1.

Diodorus mentioned Thonis in connection with a story of Heracles, claiming that the Nile had at one point become greatly inundated and flooded the region governed by Prometheus6. Before the foundation of Alexandria the city was the principal port in Egypt for Greek trade, alongside Naucratis and Heracleion7. Naucratis, its sister port, was the first and for much of its early history the only permanent Greek settlement in Egypt, a nexus for the interchange of Greek and Egyptian art and culture3. The harbour town of Heracleion was discovered in 20003.

Around 101 BC the ground beneath the central island of Heracleion gave way to soil liquefaction, probably after a severe flood8. A few residents remained through the Roman era and the beginning of Arab rule, but by the end of the eighth century AD what was left of Thonis had sunk beneath the sea8.

The identification of Thonis with Heracleion was long disputed. Before the discovery of the second stele in 2000 most historians held that Thonis and Heracleion were two separate cities, both on what is now the Egyptian mainland4. One of the twin steles of the Decree of Nectanebo I was not found until the discovery of 2000, and it settled the question5. That stele was found at the temple of Heracleion and carried an order from Nectanebo I that it be placed in the city of Thonis, proving the two names belonged to one and the same city4. The inscription also wrote the city's name into its text, confirming the name Thonis9. A stela of Ptolemy VIII from the temple of Heracleion belongs to the same epigraphic record5.

4. Greek Trade and the Wider Delta

Heracleion stood among the principal ports through which Egypt's Greek trade passed before the foundation of Alexandria7. Its commercial importance is inseparable from that of Naucratis and Canopus, the other harbours named alongside it in this early network7.

Findings reported in 2023 indicate that Greeks were already permitted to trade in the city and that they had started to take root there as early as the Twenty-sixth Dynasty2. The same investigations suggest that Greek mercenaries were likely employed in the city's defence2.

The city carried two names: Heracleion in Greek and Thonis, a form traced through Ancient Egyptian and Coptic1. It lay near the Canopic Mouth of the Nile, roughly 32 km (20 mi) northeast of Alexandria on the Mediterranean1. Its origins were insular, since Thonis was first built on adjoining islands in the Nile Delta2.

Tradition places the beginnings of Thonis as far back as the 12th century BC, and ancient Greek historians mention the place1. Greek presence in Egypt itself reaches back at least to Mycenaean times (1600–1100 BC) and more likely further still, into the proto-Greek Minoan age3. The earliest written report of Greeks in 7th century BC Egypt is a story in the Histories of Herodotus of Ionian and Carian pirates forced by storm to land on or near the Nile Delta3.

Among the city's monuments was a large temple of Khonsu, son of Amun, whom the Greeks identified with Herakles2. The second century BC Greek poet Nicander wrote that Menelaus's helmsman, Canopus, was bitten by a viper on the sands of Thonis6.

Naucratis, the other harbour of the early network, was a city and trading-post on the Canopic branch of the Nile, south-east of the Mediterranean and of Alexandria3. It was the first and, for much of its early history, the only permanent Greek settlement in Egypt, serving as a symbiotic nexus for the interchange of Greek and Egyptian art and culture3. Herodotus stated that Amasis was partial to the Greeks and, among other favors, gave to such as liked to settle in Egypt the city of Naucratis for their residence; the word he uses for city seems to indicate a city already there, now borne out by archaeological evidence3. Amasis also shut down the camps and moved the Greek soldiers to Memphis, where they were employed to guard him against the native Egyptians3.

5. Myth and Literary Tradition

The literary record for Thonis is fragmentary but consistent in placing the city at the mouth of the Nile. Diodorus held that the myth of Heracles slaying the eagle which fed upon the liver of Prometheus took its origin from an event remembered at this site, and he located the city of Thonis precisely where the Nile then emptied into the Mediterranean 6. In his account the town is not a backdrop but the geographical anchor of the legend, the point at which the river met the sea 6.

A second notice in Diodorus concerns the aftermath of the abduction of Helen. Some of Paris' servants fled to a nearby temple of Heracles built along the coast, where they told the temple priests and Thonis, the watchman at the entrance to the Nile, of Paris' taking of Helen from Menelaus 6. The episode gives the city a role in the Trojan cycle and assigns its name to a named official, the watchman who guarded the river's approach 6.

Greek poetry of the second century BC adds a third strand. Nicander wrote that Canopus, the helmsman of Menelaus, was bitten by a viper on the sands of Thonis 6. The detail is brief, but it fixes the city's shoreline as the setting of a death that belongs to the nostos, the homeward wandering of the Greek fleet 6.

The city's name carries a double tradition. Heracleion renders the Greek Ἡράκλειον, while Thonis renders Θῶνις, itself drawn from the Ancient Egyptian Tȝ-ḥn.t and preserved in Coptic as Thōni; the compound Thonis-Heracleion is also used 1. The identification behind the compound was not always accepted. Before the discovery of the second stele in 2000 most historians held that Thonis and Heracleion were two separate cities, both on what is now the Egyptian mainland 4. The stele, found at the temple of Heracleion, carried an order from Nectanebo I that it be placed in the city of Thonis, proving the two names belonged to one city 4. The other stele was not found until the discovery of 2000, which produced the same revelation 5, and the name Thonis is written into the inscription of that stele as well 9.

The equation of the two names rests on a theological correspondence. Thonis had a large temple of Khonsu, son of Amun, whom the Greeks knew as Herakles 2. Sanctuaries at Heracleion dedicated to Osiris and other deities were famous for miraculous healing and drew pilgrims from a wide area 2. The city was originally built on adjoining islands in the Nile Delta 2, and its legendary beginnings reach back to the 12th century BC, with mention by ancient Greek historians 1.

Strabo supplies a further notice on the city's position and its name. In the distant past, he wrote, Thonis — whose name derived from its king — had stood on a strip of land between the Mediterranean and a canal leading toward Schedia 6. Diodorus, for his part, framed the Heracles story against a flood: at one point the Nile had become greatly inundated and flooded the area in which Prometheus was governor 6.

The city's end came in stages. Around 101 BC, probably after a severe flood, the ground beneath the central island succumbed to soil liquefaction 8. A few residents stayed on through the Roman era and the beginning of Arab rule, but by the end of the eighth century AD what was left of Thonis had sunk beneath the sea 8.

In the wider geography of the Delta the city belonged to a network of ports. It lay near the Canopic Mouth of the Nile, about 32 km (20 mi) northeast of Alexandria on the Mediterranean 1. Naucratis, a city and trading-post on the Canopic branch south-east of the Mediterranean and of Alexandria, was the first and for much of its early history the only permanent Greek settlement in Egypt, a nexus for the interchange of Greek and Egyptian art and culture 3. Heracleion was the sister port of Naucratis, and it was discovered in 2000 3. It was the principal port in Egypt for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria, along with Naucratis and Heracleion 7.

6. Submergence and Abandonment

A few residents stayed on during the Roman era and the beginning of Arab rule8. By the end of the eighth century AD what was left of Thonis had sunk beneath the sea2.

Thonis was first built on a group of adjoining islands within the Nile Delta2. Its sanctuaries, dedicated to Osiris and other deities, were renowned for miraculous healing and drew pilgrims from far beyond the city2. The city also held a large temple of Khonsu, son of Amun, whom the Greeks identified with Herakles2. Strabo recorded that in the distant past Thonis, whose name came from its king, lay on a strip of land between the Mediterranean Sea and a canal running toward Schedia6. Diodorus linked Thonis to the story of Heracles, reporting that the Nile had once flooded the region governed by Prometheus, and that the city stood where the river then emptied into the Mediterranean6.

The collapse of the central island came around 101 BC, probably in the wake of a severe flood, when the ground beneath it gave way to soil liquefaction8. Long before Alexandria existed, the city was Egypt's principal port for Greek trade, a role it shared with Naucratis7. Naucratis, the sister port whose harbour town was Heracleion, was the first permanent Greek settlement in Egypt and for much of its early history the only one3.

For a long time Thonis and Heracleion were taken to be two distinct cities, both on what is now the Egyptian mainland4. A stele found at the temple of Heracleion, bearing an order from Nectanebo I that it be placed in the city of Thonis, showed the two names belonged to one city4. The second stele of the pair was not recovered until the site's discovery in 2000, which settled the identification5.

7. Rediscovery and Excavation

The ruins submerged in the sea were located and excavated by the French underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio and his team of the IEASM in collaboration with the Ministry for Antiquities of Egypt after a five-year search4. The work was conducted underwater rather than on land, recovering material such as Ptolemaic coins from the submerged site4.

Before the discovery of the second stele in 2000 most historians believed that Thonis and Heracleion were two separate cities, both located on what is now the Egyptian mainland4. Until this point archaeologists and historians had thought that Thonis and Heracleion were separate cities, but this discovery solidified that the two cities were actually the same city9.

Heracleion was also known as Thonis, and sometimes as Thonis-Heracleion1. The city stood near the Canopic Mouth of the Nile, roughly 32 km (20 mi) northeast of Alexandria on the Mediterranean Sea1. It had been built on adjoining islands in the Nile Delta2. Its legendary beginnings reach back to as early as the 12th century BC, and ancient Greek historians mention it1. Before Alexandria was founded it was the principal port in Egypt for Greek trade, together with Naucratis and Heracleion7. The harbour town of Heracleion was the sister port of Naucratis3.

Thonis had a large temple of Khonsu, son of Amun, whom the Greeks knew as Herakles2. Sanctuaries in Heracleion dedicated to Osiris and other deities were famous for miraculous healing and drew pilgrims from a wide area2. Strabo wrote that in the distant past the city of Thonis, whose name derived from its king, had stood on a strip of land between the Mediterranean Sea and a canal leading towards the city of Schedia6. Diodorus mentioned Thonis in connection with a story of Heracles, claiming that at one point the Nile had become greatly inundated and flooded the area in which Prometheus was governor6.

Around 101 BC, probably after a severe flood, the ground on which the central island of Heracleion was built succumbed to soil liquefaction8. A few residents stayed on during the Roman era and the beginning of Arab rule, but by the end of the eighth century AD what was left of Thonis had sunk beneath the sea8.

The stele was found at the temple of Heracleion, bearing an order from Nectanebo I that it be placed in the city of Thonis, which proved that Thonis and Heracleion were one and the same4. The inscription also wrote the name of the city into its text, confirming the name as Thonis9. The other stele was not found until Heracleion's discovery in 2000, which led to the revelation that Thonis and Heracleion were the same city5. Among the Egyptian references are the stela of Ptolemy VIII from the temple of Heracleion and one of the twin steles of the Decree of Nectanebo I5.

Leonard founded "The Naucratis Project" in 1977, carrying out surveys in 1977–1978 and further surveys and excavations to the south of the site from 1980–1982 under the auspices of the American Research Center in Egypt3. Naucratis itself was the first and, for much of its early history, the only permanent Greek settlement in Egypt, serving as a symbiotic nexus for the interchange of Greek and Egyptian art and culture3.

8. Decree of Nectanebo I

Heracleion is also mentioned in the twin steles of the Decree of Nectanebo I, the first of which is known as the 'Stele of Naukratis' 5. These steles specify that one tenth of the taxes on imports passing through the town of Thonis (Heracleion) were to be given to the ancient sanctuary of Neith of Sais 5.

The stele was found at the temple of Heracleion, carrying an order from Nectanebo I stating that it be placed in the city of Thonis 4. This placement proves that Thonis and Heracleion were actually one and the same 4.

Among the Egyptian references associated with the site is the stela of Ptolemy VIII from the temple of Heracleion 5. One of the twin steles of the Decree of Nectanebo I is likewise recorded among these references 5.

The second stele of the decree did not come to light until the site's discovery in 2000, and that find overturned the earlier consensus that Thonis and Heracleion were distinct cities 5. Before that discovery most historians held that the two were separate settlements, both on what is now the Egyptian mainland 4. The inscription on the recovered stele also fixes the city's name as Thonis, written directly into the text 9, and the identification was thereafter treated as settled rather than disputed 9.

The city itself stood on adjoining islands in the Nile Delta 2, and its legendary origins reach back to the 12th century BC, with mention in the ancient Greek historians 1. Strabo recorded that Thonis, whose name he derived from its king, had in the distant past occupied a strip of land between the Mediterranean and a canal running toward Schedia 6. Diodorus likewise touched on Thonis in connection with the story of Heracles, describing a time when the Nile had flooded the territory governed by Prometheus 6. The city's great temple was dedicated to Khonsu, son of Amun, whom the Greeks identified with Herakles 2, and its sanctuaries to Osiris and other deities were famed for miraculous healing, drawing pilgrims from far around 2.

Heracleion served as the sister port of Naucratis 3 and, together with Naucratis and Canopus, was the principal Egyptian port for Greek trade before Alexandria was founded 7. Naucratis itself lay on the Canopic branch of the Nile, south-east of the Mediterranean and of Alexandria 3, and was for much of its early history the only permanent Greek settlement in Egypt, a meeting point for the exchange of Greek and Egyptian art and culture 3.

The ground beneath the central island gave way around 101 BC, probably after a severe flood, when it succumbed to soil liquefaction 8. A few residents remained through the Roman era and the beginning of Arab rule, but by the end of the eighth century AD what was left of Thonis had sunk beneath the sea 8.

9. Key dates

  • 101 BCE
    Around 101 BC, probably after a severe flood, the ground on which
    Around 101 BC, probably after a severe flood, the ground on which the central island of Heracleion was built succumbed to soil liquefaction .
  • 1600
    == Background == Archaeological evidence suggests that the history of the
    == Background == Archaeological evidence suggests that the history of the ancient Greeks in Egypt dates back at least to Mycenaean times and more likely even further back into the proto-Greek Minoan age.
  • 1977
    Leonard founded "The Naucratis Project" in 1977 carrying out surveys in 19
    Leonard founded "The Naucratis Project" in 1977 carrying out surveys in 1977–1978 and further surveys and excavations to the south of the site from 1980–1982 .
  • 2000
    Discovery and excavation process Ptolemaic coins from the submerged Heracl
    Discovery and excavation process Ptolemaic coins from the submerged Heracleion Before the discovery of the second stele in 2000, most historians believed that Thonis and Heracleion were two separate cities, both located on what is now the Egyptian mainland.
  • 2023
    archaeological findings, suggested that Greeks, who were already allowed t
    2023 archaeological findings, suggested that Greeks, who were already allowed to trade in the city, "had started to take root" there as early as during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt and that likely Greek mercenaries were employed to defend it.

10. Frequently asked questions

What caused the ground beneath the central island of Heracleion to give way?

Around 101 BC the ground on which the central island of Heracleion was built succumbed to soil liquefaction, probably after a severe flood 8.

Where was Thonis situated according to Strabo?

Strabo wrote that in the distant past the city of Thonis, whose name derived from its king, had been located on a strip of land between the Mediterranean Sea and a canal leading towards the city of Schedia 6.

What did Diodorus say about the Nile and the site of Thonis?

Diodorus claimed that the myth of Heracles slaying the eagle which ate the liver of Prometheus had its origins in an event of great inundation, and that the city of Thonis stood where the Nile now emptied into the Mediterranean 6.

Who first searched for the submerged ruins, and over what period?

Leonard founded "The Naucratis Project" in 1977, carrying out surveys in 1977–1978 and further surveys and excavations to the south of the site from 1980–1982 under the auspices of the American Research Center in Egypt 3.

What did the 2023 findings suggest about Greek settlement at the city?

The 2023 archaeological findings suggested that Greeks, who were already allowed to trade in the city, had started to take root there as early as during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt, and that Greek mercenaries were likely employed to defend it 1.

How did Memphis relate to the wider Egyptian landscape in which the port is studied?

Memphis remained the second city of Egypt until the establishment of Fustat (or Fostat) in 641 AD 11Heracleion — egypt · Reference ↗.

References (11)

11 sources · Web 11

  1. 1Heracleion — wiki — Wikipedia Web↩View source
  2. 2Heracleion — sec1 — Wikipedia Web↩View source
  3. 3Heracleion — naucratis — Reference Web↩View source
  4. 4Heracleion — sec5 — Wikipedia Web↩View source
  5. 5Heracleion — sec4 — Wikipedia Web↩View source
  6. 6Heracleion — sec3 — Wikipedia Web↩View source
  7. 7Heracleion — egypt — Reference Web↩View source
  8. 8Heracleion — sec2 — Wikipedia Web↩View source
  9. 9Heracleion — sec6 — Wikipedia Web↩View source
  10. 10Heracleion — abukir — Reference Web↩View source
  11. 11Heracleion — egypt — Reference Web↩View source

Related articles

IndiaLibrary of Alexandria